Fundamentals
Have you ever felt a subtle shift in your inner landscape, a gradual dimming of the vitality that once defined your days? Perhaps a persistent fatigue settles in, making even familiar tasks feel burdensome. You might notice a quiet erosion of your drive, a lessening of your enthusiasm for pursuits that once brought joy.
There could be a subtle change in your physical composition, a tendency for lean mass to recede while adipose tissue accumulates, despite consistent efforts. These experiences, often dismissed as simply “getting older,” can signal a deeper imbalance within your biological systems. They are not merely isolated symptoms; they are often the body’s subtle signals, a communication from your endocrine system indicating a need for recalibration.
Many individuals experience these changes, attributing them to the inevitable march of time. Yet, the underlying mechanisms frequently involve the intricate dance of hormones, particularly testosterone in men. When this vital hormone declines, the effects ripple throughout the entire system, influencing everything from mood and cognitive clarity to metabolic efficiency and physical strength.
Understanding these connections, recognizing that your feelings are valid expressions of biological shifts, marks the first step toward reclaiming your inherent capacity for well-being. This journey involves listening to your body’s whispers before they become shouts, seeking to comprehend the complex biological language it speaks.
The endocrine system functions as a sophisticated internal messaging network, with hormones acting as chemical messengers. These messengers travel through the bloodstream, delivering instructions to various cells and tissues, orchestrating a vast array of physiological processes. When the production or reception of these messages falters, the entire system can experience disarray.
For men, a decline in testosterone, often termed hypogonadism, can lead to a constellation of symptoms that significantly diminish quality of life. This condition extends beyond sexual function, affecting energy levels, mental acuity, and overall physical resilience.
Consider the analogy of a finely tuned orchestra. Each section, from the strings to the brass, must play in harmony for the music to be complete and resonant. Similarly, your body’s systems, including the hormonal network, require precise coordination.
When one section, like the endocrine system, begins to play out of tune due to hormonal insufficiency, the entire symphony of your health can suffer. Recognizing this disharmony is not a sign of weakness; it is an act of profound self-awareness, a commitment to restoring your body’s natural rhythm.
Recognizing subtle shifts in energy, mood, and physical composition can indicate underlying hormonal imbalances, prompting a deeper investigation into one’s biological systems.
The question of long-term safety for any therapeutic intervention, especially one as impactful as testosterone replacement therapy, stands as a paramount consideration. Individuals contemplating such protocols naturally seek assurance regarding the enduring effects on their health. This exploration moves beyond superficial definitions, seeking to understand how hormonal recalibration interacts with the body’s interconnected systems over time. It requires a detailed examination of clinical evidence, translating complex scientific findings into actionable knowledge that supports informed decision-making.
Testosterone replacement therapy, or TRT, aims to restore circulating testosterone levels to a physiological range, alleviating the symptoms associated with its deficiency. This intervention is not a universal panacea, but a targeted approach for individuals with clinically diagnosed hypogonadism. The decision to pursue TRT involves a thorough diagnostic process, including comprehensive blood work to assess total and free testosterone levels, alongside other relevant markers. A complete clinical picture, integrating symptoms with laboratory findings, guides appropriate therapeutic strategies.
The initial assessment for hypogonadism typically involves measuring morning fasting total testosterone concentrations. If these levels are consistently low, further evaluation includes measuring luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) to distinguish between primary (testicular) and secondary (hypothalamic-pituitary) hypogonadism. This diagnostic precision ensures that the underlying cause of deficiency is understood, guiding the most appropriate and effective treatment path.
What Is the Endocrine System’s Role in Male Vitality?
The endocrine system, a network of glands, produces and releases hormones that regulate nearly every process in the body. For men, the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis serves as the central command center for testosterone production. The hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which signals the pituitary gland to secrete LH and FSH.
LH then stimulates the Leydig cells in the testes to produce testosterone, while FSH supports sperm production. This intricate feedback loop ensures that testosterone levels are maintained within a healthy range. Disruptions at any point along this axis can lead to hypogonadism.
Testosterone influences a wide array of physiological functions beyond sexual health. It plays a significant role in maintaining bone mineral density, supporting muscle mass and strength, regulating red blood cell production, and influencing mood and cognitive function. A deficiency can therefore manifest as reduced energy, diminished libido, decreased muscle strength, increased body fat, and even subtle cognitive changes. Addressing these symptoms through targeted hormonal support aims to restore systemic balance, allowing individuals to experience a renewed sense of well-being.
Intermediate
Navigating the landscape of hormonal optimization protocols requires a precise understanding of how specific therapeutic agents interact with the body’s systems. Testosterone replacement therapy for men, when implemented thoughtfully, aims to restore physiological balance and alleviate the pervasive symptoms of hypogonadism. This involves more than simply administering testosterone; it encompasses a comprehensive strategy that considers the interconnectedness of the endocrine system and potential downstream effects.
Understanding Testosterone Replacement Protocols
A standard protocol for male hormone optimization often involves weekly intramuscular injections of Testosterone Cypionate, typically at a concentration of 200mg/ml. This method provides a steady release of testosterone, helping to maintain stable serum levels. The choice of administration route and frequency is carefully considered to optimize therapeutic outcomes while minimizing fluctuations that could lead to adverse effects.
To support the body’s natural endocrine function during exogenous testosterone administration, additional medications are frequently incorporated. Gonadorelin, administered via subcutaneous injections twice weekly, serves to maintain endogenous testosterone production and preserve fertility. This peptide acts as a GnRH analog, stimulating the pituitary gland to release LH and FSH, thereby signaling the testes to continue their natural function. This approach helps to mitigate testicular atrophy, a common side effect of exogenous testosterone alone.
Another key component in many TRT protocols is Anastrozole, an oral tablet taken twice weekly. Testosterone can convert into estrogen through the action of the aromatase enzyme. Elevated estrogen levels in men can lead to undesirable effects such as gynecomastia, water retention, and mood disturbances.
Anastrozole, an aromatase inhibitor, helps to block this conversion, maintaining a healthy testosterone-to-estrogen ratio. This precise management of estrogen levels is a critical aspect of a well-rounded TRT regimen, ensuring a more favorable safety profile and symptom resolution.
In certain situations, Enclomiphene may be included in the protocol. This medication, a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM), can support LH and FSH levels, further encouraging the body’s intrinsic testosterone production. It offers an alternative or complementary strategy to Gonadorelin, particularly for men prioritizing fertility preservation or seeking to stimulate their own production without direct exogenous testosterone administration.
Comprehensive TRT protocols for men often combine testosterone injections with medications like Gonadorelin and Anastrozole to maintain natural production and manage estrogen levels.
Addressing Potential Long-Term Considerations
The long-term safety of testosterone replacement therapy is a subject of ongoing scientific inquiry, with extensive research dedicated to understanding its effects on various physiological systems. Concerns historically centered on cardiovascular health and prostate health. Recent meta-analyses and large-scale studies have provided clearer insights, helping to refine clinical guidelines and patient counseling.
Cardiovascular Health and TRT
Initial concerns regarding TRT and cardiovascular events stemmed from observational studies that presented conflicting data. However, more robust evidence from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and comprehensive meta-analyses has largely shifted the understanding. A systematic review and meta-analysis involving over 8,000 subjects treated with TRT and 7,000 placebo patients found no significant difference in major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) between the groups.
This suggests a neutral effect of TRT on the overall risk of heart attacks or strokes when administered appropriately to hypogonadal men.
Some studies, such as the TRAVERSE trial, have indicated a potential increase in non-fatal arrhythmias, specifically atrial fibrillation, in individuals receiving testosterone therapy. Yet, when all other randomized controlled trials are considered collectively, this increased risk of arrhythmias is not consistently confirmed.
This discrepancy highlights the importance of evaluating the totality of evidence and recognizing that specific trial designs or patient populations might yield different outcomes. Overall, current data indicate that TRT, when properly managed, does not appear to increase cardiovascular risk in hypogonadal men.
It is important to note that male hypogonadism itself is associated with an increased cardiovascular risk. Some research suggests that long-term TRT use may even offer cardiovascular benefits, particularly in men with late-onset and functional hypogonadism, provided safe practices are followed.
For instance, studies have observed improvements in cardiovascular risk factors such as waist circumference, body mass index, and triglyceride levels in men receiving long-term testosterone therapy. However, caution remains advised for hypogonadal men with pre-existing cardiovascular disease, necessitating careful clinical assessment and shared decision-making.
Prostate Health and TRT
The relationship between testosterone and prostate cancer has been a subject of considerable debate for decades. The historical concern, often referred to as the “hormonal hypothesis,” suggested that testosterone fueled prostate cancer growth. However, contemporary research has largely challenged this long-held belief.
Multiple systematic reviews and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials have concluded that TRT does not increase the risk of developing new prostate cancer. One meta-analysis of 22 RCTs, including both short-term and long-term comparisons of TRT with placebo, found no statistically significant increase in prostate cancer incidence, biopsy rates, or prostate nodule formation with testosterone administration. This finding holds true across various administration methods, including injections, transdermal applications, and oral forms.
Some studies have even suggested a decreased risk of aggressive prostate cancer in men receiving TRT, particularly after more than one year of therapy. This observation might be related to increased diagnostic activity in men on TRT, leading to the detection of more favorable-risk cancers, or it could reflect a genuine biological effect.
While TRT may lead to a physiological restoration of prostate size and a slight increase in prostate-specific antigen (PSA) levels, these changes typically remain within the normal range and do not indicate an increased cancer risk. Regular monitoring of PSA and prostate health remains a standard practice for men on TRT, allowing for early detection of any potential issues.
It is important to differentiate between men with existing prostate cancer and those without. Current evidence suggests that TRT may be harmful in men with advanced prostate cancer, those undergoing active surveillance for untreated prostate cancer, or those with successfully treated but high-risk disease. Therefore, TRT is generally contraindicated in men with a history of prostate cancer, a palpable prostate nodule, or elevated PSA levels without further urological evaluation.
The following table summarizes key findings regarding TRT and prostate health ∞
| Aspect of Prostate Health | Observed Effect of TRT | Supporting Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| New Prostate Cancer Risk | No increased risk | Multiple meta-analyses of RCTs |
| Aggressive Prostate Cancer Risk | Potentially decreased risk | Population-based studies |
| PSA Levels | Slight, often transient increase within normal range | Clinical observations, meta-analyses |
| Prostate Size | Physiological restoration to normal size | Clinical observations |
Erythrocytosis and Hematocrit Management
One of the most common side effects associated with testosterone therapy is erythrocytosis, characterized by an elevated red blood cell count, specifically an increase in hematocrit. Testosterone stimulates erythropoiesis, the production of red blood cells, primarily through an initial rise in erythropoietin (EPO). While a moderate increase in red blood cells can be beneficial, excessive erythrocytosis can lead to increased blood viscosity, potentially raising the risk of thromboembolic events such as blood clots.
Clinical guidelines from major endocrine organizations recommend careful monitoring of hematocrit levels in men receiving TRT. A baseline hematocrit value should be obtained before initiating therapy, with subsequent measurements at 3, 6, and 12 months after starting treatment, and annually thereafter. If hematocrit levels exceed 54%, interventions are typically recommended.
Management strategies for TRT-induced erythrocytosis include ∞
- Dose Reduction ∞ Lowering the testosterone dose or adjusting the frequency of administration can often bring hematocrit levels back into an acceptable range.
- Temporary Discontinuation ∞ If hematocrit remains elevated or symptoms of hyperviscosity are present, temporarily stopping testosterone therapy until levels normalize is advised.
- Phlebotomy ∞ Therapeutic phlebotomy, the removal of a unit of blood, is an effective method to rapidly reduce hematocrit levels.
This procedure is typically considered for symptomatic patients or when dose adjustments are insufficient. The goal is to decrease hematocrit to below 50% and maintain it within this range.
- Formulation Change ∞ Switching from injectable formulations, which are often associated with higher hematocrit percentages, to transdermal preparations may be a reasonable alternative for some patients.
Despite the effectiveness of phlebotomy in lowering hematocrit, some debate exists regarding its long-term safety, as it can decrease tissue oxygen partial pressure and deplete iron stores. Therefore, shared decision-making between the patient and clinician is paramount when considering this intervention.
Liver Function and Metabolic Health
The impact of testosterone therapy on liver function and metabolic health has also been a subject of clinical investigation. Low testosterone levels are frequently associated with metabolic derangements, including non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), insulin resistance, and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
Recent prospective controlled studies have indicated that long-term testosterone therapy can have beneficial effects on hepatic steatosis and liver function in hypogonadal men. One study observed significant improvements in liver parameters, including a decrease in fatty liver index (FLI), gamma-glutamyl transferase (γ-GT), bilirubin, and triglycerides, over several years of TRT. These improvements in liver function were also associated with a reduced cardiovascular-related mortality rate in the treated group compared to untreated controls.
TRT has also been shown to improve various metabolic markers. Studies report reductions in waist circumference, body mass index (BMI), and triglyceride levels in men receiving long-term testosterone therapy. For patients with poorly controlled diabetes, TRT has been associated with a significant reduction in HbA1c levels. These metabolic improvements suggest that testosterone therapy can play a supportive role in overall metabolic health, potentially mitigating the progression of conditions like NAFLD and reducing cardiometabolic risk factors.
Long-term TRT appears to improve liver function and metabolic markers in hypogonadal men, potentially reducing cardiovascular-related mortality.
The observed benefits on liver and metabolic parameters underscore the systemic influence of testosterone. By optimizing hormonal balance, TRT can contribute to a healthier metabolic profile, which in turn supports the function of vital organs like the liver and kidneys. This holistic improvement reflects the interconnected nature of the body’s physiological systems, where addressing one imbalance can create positive ripple effects throughout the entire organism.
Academic
A deep understanding of the long-term safety profiles of testosterone replacement therapy for men necessitates a rigorous examination of the underlying endocrinological mechanisms and the cumulative evidence from clinical research. This exploration moves beyond superficial associations, delving into the molecular and physiological adaptations that occur with sustained hormonal recalibration. The endocrine system, a complex network of feedback loops and signaling pathways, responds dynamically to exogenous hormone administration, prompting a detailed analysis of these interactions.
The HPG Axis and Exogenous Androgen Administration
The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis represents a classic example of a negative feedback system. The hypothalamus releases GnRH in a pulsatile manner, stimulating the anterior pituitary to secrete LH and FSH. LH acts on Leydig cells in the testes to produce testosterone, while FSH stimulates Sertoli cells to support spermatogenesis. Circulating testosterone, in turn, exerts negative feedback on both the hypothalamus and the pituitary, suppressing GnRH, LH, and FSH release.
When exogenous testosterone is administered, as in TRT, it directly increases circulating testosterone levels. This elevated exogenous testosterone then signals back to the hypothalamus and pituitary, leading to a suppression of GnRH, LH, and FSH secretion. The consequence is a reduction in endogenous testosterone production by the testes and, critically, a suppression of spermatogenesis.
This mechanism explains why fertility preservation strategies, such as the co-administration of Gonadorelin or Enclomiphene, are often necessary for men on TRT who wish to maintain reproductive capacity. Gonadorelin, as a GnRH analog, provides the pulsatile stimulation necessary to keep the pituitary and testes active, circumventing the negative feedback of exogenous testosterone on the endogenous axis.
Cardiovascular Outcomes and Mechanistic Insights
The debate surrounding TRT and cardiovascular safety has been a significant area of research. Early observational studies, often criticized for methodological limitations such as selection bias and confounding factors, generated initial apprehension. However, more recent, well-designed randomized controlled trials and meta-analyses have provided a more nuanced picture.
The largest and most comprehensive study to date, the TRAVERSE trial, was specifically designed to assess the cardiovascular safety of testosterone therapy in men with hypogonadism and pre-existing cardiovascular disease or high cardiovascular risk.
While this trial did observe an increased incidence of non-fatal arrhythmias, particularly atrial fibrillation, in the testosterone group, it found no increase in major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) such as myocardial infarction, stroke, or cardiovascular death. Other meta-analyses, combining data from numerous randomized controlled trials, have similarly reported a neutral effect of TRT on MACE, suggesting that testosterone therapy does not increase the overall risk of these severe cardiovascular events.
The mechanistic understanding of testosterone’s influence on the cardiovascular system is complex. Testosterone receptors are present in various cardiovascular tissues, including the heart and vascular endothelium. Testosterone can influence ∞
- Vascular Tone ∞ It may promote vasodilation by increasing nitric oxide bioavailability, potentially improving endothelial function.
- Lipid Metabolism ∞ While some studies show mixed effects on lipid profiles, testosterone can improve triglyceride levels and reduce overall adiposity, which are beneficial for cardiovascular health.
- Insulin Sensitivity ∞ Testosterone deficiency is associated with insulin resistance.
TRT can improve insulin sensitivity, thereby mitigating a key risk factor for cardiovascular disease.
- Erythropoiesis ∞ As discussed, testosterone stimulates red blood cell production. While beneficial within physiological limits, excessive erythrocytosis can increase blood viscosity and potentially thrombotic risk.
Careful monitoring and management of hematocrit are therefore paramount.
The observed increase in arrhythmias in some studies warrants further investigation into the precise mechanisms. It is hypothesized that testosterone might influence cardiac ion channels or autonomic nervous system activity, though definitive pathways require more elucidation. Despite this, the overall consensus from high-quality evidence points towards a general cardiovascular safety profile for TRT in appropriately selected hypogonadal men.
Prostate Cancer Risk Reassessment
The historical paradigm linking testosterone to prostate cancer growth, largely based on the work of Huggins and Hodges in the 1940s, has undergone significant revision. Their findings, which showed that castration caused prostate cancer regression and testosterone administration caused progression, were derived from men with advanced, metastatic prostate cancer. This led to the widespread belief that any testosterone exposure would fuel prostate cancer.
Modern research, however, reveals a more nuanced relationship. The “saturation model” of prostate androgen receptors posits that prostate cells have a limited number of androgen receptors. Once these receptors are saturated at relatively low testosterone concentrations, further increases in testosterone levels do not lead to additional prostate growth or increased cancer risk. This explains why restoring testosterone levels from deficient to physiological ranges does not appear to stimulate prostate cancer in men without pre-existing disease.
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials have consistently demonstrated that TRT does not increase the incidence of prostate cancer in hypogonadal men. Furthermore, some evidence suggests that TRT may even be associated with a lower risk of aggressive prostate cancer, possibly due to increased diagnostic scrutiny in men on therapy, leading to earlier detection of less aggressive forms.
The monitoring of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) remains a critical component of TRT management. While a slight increase in PSA is expected as the prostate returns to a more physiological size, significant or rapid increases warrant further urological evaluation to rule out underlying prostate pathology. This proactive monitoring ensures that any potential issues are identified early, allowing for timely intervention.
Hepatic and Renal Function Adaptations
The liver plays a central role in hormone metabolism, including the synthesis and breakdown of steroids. Historically, concerns existed regarding the hepatotoxicity of oral testosterone formulations, particularly 17-alpha-alkylated androgens, which are known to cause liver dysfunction. However, modern TRT formulations, such as injectable testosterone esters (e.g. Testosterone Cypionate) and transdermal preparations, bypass first-pass hepatic metabolism, significantly reducing the risk of liver strain.
Emerging evidence suggests that long-term TRT can actually improve liver health in men with hypogonadism, particularly those with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). NAFLD is highly prevalent in men with low testosterone and is a significant risk factor for metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease. Studies have shown that TRT can lead to reductions in markers of liver damage, such as alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST), and improvements in the fatty liver index.
The mechanisms behind these improvements are likely multifaceted ∞
- Improved Insulin Sensitivity ∞ Testosterone therapy can enhance insulin sensitivity, which is a key factor in the pathogenesis of NAFLD. Better insulin action reduces hepatic fat accumulation.
- Reduced Adiposity ∞ TRT often leads to reductions in visceral fat and overall body mass index, directly alleviating the burden on the liver.
- Anti-inflammatory Effects ∞ Testosterone may exert anti-inflammatory effects, which could reduce hepatic inflammation associated with NAFLD.
Beyond the liver, some studies indicate beneficial effects on renal function.
Improvements in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and reductions in serum creatinine and uric acid have been observed in men receiving long-term testosterone undecanoate injections. These findings suggest a broader metabolic benefit of testosterone optimization, extending to kidney health.
TRT’s long-term safety is supported by evidence showing neutral cardiovascular impact, no increased prostate cancer risk in healthy men, and improvements in liver and metabolic health.
Bone Mineral Density and Cognitive Function
Testosterone plays a critical role in maintaining bone mineral density (BMD). Hypogonadal men are at an increased risk of osteoporosis and fractures. TRT has been shown to increase BMD, particularly in the lumbar spine and femoral neck, reducing fracture risk over the long term. This effect is mediated through direct action on osteoblasts and osteoclasts, as well as indirectly through its aromatization to estrogen, which is also crucial for bone health in men.
The impact of testosterone on cognitive function is another area of active research. Testosterone receptors are present in various brain regions involved in cognition, including the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Symptoms of low testosterone often include reduced concentration, impaired memory, and diminished mental clarity.
While the evidence is still accumulating, some studies suggest that TRT may improve certain aspects of cognitive function, such as verbal memory and spatial abilities, in hypogonadal men. This area requires further large-scale, long-term randomized controlled trials to establish definitive conclusions.
The comprehensive safety profile of TRT, when administered under careful medical supervision, reflects a balance of potential benefits and manageable risks. The current body of evidence supports its use as a viable therapeutic option for symptomatic hypogonadal men, with ongoing research continuing to refine our understanding of its long-term systemic effects.
References
- Rastrelli, G. et al. “Cardiovascular safety of testosterone replacement therapy in men ∞ an updated systematic review and meta-analysis.” Expert Opinion on Drug Safety, 2024.
- Oduwole, A. et al. “Cardiovascular Safety Outcomes of Testosterone Replacement in Men with Late-Onset and Functional Hypogonadism ∞ A Systematic Review.” ClinMed International Library, 2023.
- Kovac, J. R. et al. “Testosterone Replacement Therapy and Risk of Favorable and Aggressive Prostate Cancer.” Journal of Clinical Oncology, 2017.
- Choi, Y. S. et al. “Testosterone replacement therapy in men with untreated or treated prostate cancer ∞ Do we have enough evidences?” Translational Andrology and Urology, 2019.
- Saad, F. et al. “Long-term testosterone therapy improves liver parameters and steatosis in hypogonadal men ∞ a prospective controlled registry study.” Aging Male, 2020.
- Aird, W. C. “How do I treat my patient with testosterone supplement-induced erythrocytosis?” The Blood Project, 2023.
- Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. “Testosterone Therapy in Men With Hypogonadism.” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 2018.
Reflection
As you consider the detailed insights into testosterone replacement therapy, reflect on your own biological narrative. The information presented here is not merely a collection of facts; it represents a pathway to understanding the subtle yet profound mechanisms that govern your vitality. Your body possesses an inherent intelligence, and recognizing its signals is the first step toward a more aligned and energetic existence.
This knowledge empowers you to engage in a meaningful dialogue with healthcare professionals, advocating for a personalized approach that honors your unique physiological blueprint. The journey toward optimal hormonal health is deeply personal, requiring careful consideration of your symptoms, your goals, and the most current evidence-based protocols. It is a commitment to self-discovery, allowing you to reclaim the vibrant function that is your birthright.
Consider what it means to truly listen to your body, to interpret its communications, and to respond with informed, deliberate action. This process extends beyond addressing symptoms; it involves cultivating a deeper connection with your internal systems, fostering a state of well-being that resonates from within. The path to renewed vitality is available, guided by scientific understanding and a profound respect for your individual experience.
Glossary
endocrine system
this exploration moves beyond superficial
testosterone replacement therapy
testosterone replacement
testosterone levels
testosterone production
red blood cell production
bone mineral density
hormonal optimization protocols
testosterone cypionate
testosterone administration
exogenous testosterone
anastrozole
enclomiphene
gonadorelin
long-term safety
prostate health
major adverse cardiovascular events
randomized controlled trials
testosterone therapy
cardiovascular risk
receiving long-term testosterone therapy
cardiovascular disease
prostate cancer
randomized controlled trials have
aggressive prostate cancer
prostate-specific antigen
cancer risk
erythrocytosis
hematocrit levels
non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
low testosterone
long-term testosterone therapy
liver function
receiving long-term testosterone
